home » Other Belong to the language family. Languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation and language families to which they belong

Belong to the language family. Languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation and language families to which they belong

Many languages of the Old World began nostratic linguistic community, dating from researchers around the 11th – 9th millennium BC. and localized by them in North-East Africa and South-West Asia. From its composition, the languages of five families emerged, spreading over a large territory of the Old World: Indo-European, Altai, Ural-Yukaghir, Kartvelian and Dravidian.

Indo-European the family occupies a special place among them, since its languages are not only spread over the vast territory of the Old World, but predominate in the number of speakers in the American and Australian-Oceanic regions. It includes the following groups, subgroups and languages.

Slavic the group, in turn, is subdivided into subgroups: East Slavic - Russian, Ukrainian, Rusyn and Belarusian languages; West Slavic - Polish, Czech, Slovak and two Lusatian languages (Lusatians are the Slavic people of the north-eastern part of Germany); South Slavic - Serbo-Croatian (native to Serbs, Croats, Montenegrins and Bosnians), Slovene, Macedonian and Bulgarian.

Germanic a group in which, as in the Slavic, it is possible to distinguish "one-national" languages, i.e. those that are native to one ethnic group, and "multinational" that "serve" several peoples. The first are: Swedish, Norwegian, Frisian (Frisians are an ethnic group living in the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany), Faroese (Faroese are the people of the Faroe Islands), Icelandic languages, to the second: German, which is native to Germans, Austrians, Liechtenstein, German-Swiss, Alsatians, peculiar variants German language are Luxembourgish and Yiddish - the mother tongue for a significant part of Ashkenazi Jews; English - for the British, most of the Scots and Irish, part of the Gibraltars, Anglo-Canadians, Anglo-Australians, Anglo-Zealanders, Anglo-Africanists, US Americans and a number of peoples of the West Indies - Grenadians, Jamaicans, Barbados, Trinidadians, Guyanese; Dutch - for Dutch, Flemish, Surinamese and Afrikaners (Boers) of South Africa; Danish - for the Danes and part of the Norwegians.

Romanesque the group that arose on the basis of the so-called Vulgar Latin, which now belongs to the "dead" languages, includes languages that are native to one ethnic group - Romanian, Catalan, Galician, Romansh, Sardinian, Occitan, Corsican, and for several ethnic groups: italian - for Italians, Sanmarians, Italo-Swiss; French - for the French, Monegasques / Monacans, Franco-Swiss, Walloons, French Canadians, in the West Indies - Guadalupeans, Martinics, Guyans and Haitians; Portuguese - for the Portuguese and Brazilians; Spanish - for the Spaniards, part of the Gibraltars, and in Latin America for the majority of ethnic groups - Mexicans, Peruvians, Chileans, Argentines, Puerto Ricans, Cubans, etc. (with the exception of the Brazilians and some peoples of the West Indies). The Spanish language holds the record for the number of ethnic groups speaking it.

Celtic the group, which was once widespread in Europe, is now represented only by Irish, Breton (an ethnic group in France), Gaelic (part of the Scots) and Welsh (Welsh) languages.

Albanian group - Albanian.

Greek group - Greek, spoken by the Greeks themselves, Greek Cypriots, and the so-called Karakachan Greeks of mountainous Greece.

Baltic group - Lithuanian, Latvian languages.

Armenian group - Armenian.

Iranian group - Afghan / Pashtun, Persian / Farsi, Dari / Farsi-Kabuli, Kurdish, Tajik, etc., from the languages of the peoples of Russia - Ossetian and Tat.

Indo-Aryan the group includes the languages of the northern part of the Indian subcontinent - Hindustan, Bengali, Bihar, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, Assamese, Nepali, Sinhalese, etc. In the Russian Federation, this group is represented by the Gypsy language.

Nuristan group - Nuristan language.

Altai the language family is represented by three groups - Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu, including the Korean branch.

Turkic group - Turkish (Turks, Turkish Cypriots, Greek-Urum), Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Karakalpak, Uzbek, Uyghur, Gagauz, etc. In the Russian Federation in the European part - Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash languages. In the North Caucasus - Karachay-Balkar, Nogai and Kumyk. In Siberia - Altai, Khakass, Tuvan, Yakut, Dolgan, Shor, Tofalar languages.

Mongolian group - Mongolian, in the Russian Federation: Buryat - in Siberia and Kalmyk - in the European part.

Tungus-Manchu group - Manchzhur, in the Russian Federation - Nanai, Evenk, Even, Ulch, Udege, Oroch, Orok (Uilta), Negidal languages.

Ural-Yukagir the family consists of three groups of languages - Finno-Ugric, Samoyed and Yukaghir.

Finno-Ugric group includes languages finnish subgroups - Finnish, Estonian, Livonian (people in Latvia). In the Russian Federation - Udmurt, Komi and Permian Komi, Sami, Vepsian, Izhorian, as well as the languages of bilingual ethnic groups: Moksha and Erzyan - native to the Mordovians, Mountain Mari and meadow-eastern - for the Mari, Livvik and Ludik - for the Karelians; and ugric subgroups - Hungarian, and in the Russian Federation - Khanty and Mansi languages.

Samoyed the group consists of the Nenets, Enets, Selkup and Nganasan languages.

Yukagirskaya the group is represented by only one language - Yukaghir.

North Caucasian the family consists of the Nakho-Dagestan and Abkhaz-Adyg groups.

Naho-Dagestan the group includes nakh a subgroup consisting of Chechen and Ingush languages, and Dagestan a subgroup consisting, according to the calculations of linguists, of about fifty languages - Avar, Lezghin, Dargin, Lak, Tabasaran, etc.

Part Abkhaz-Adyghe groups include abkhaz a subgroup including the Abkhaz and Abaza languages, and Adyghe a subgroup consisting of the Adyghe and Kabardino-Circassian languages.

All of the above families include, among others, the languages of the peoples, ethnic territory which is part of the Russian Federation. In addition, there are peoples who speak Chukchi-Kamchatka languages that do not go back to the Nostratic community - Chukchi, Koryak and Itelmen, Eskimo-Aleutian - Eskimo and Aleutian.

Peoples who speak the languages of other families live mainly outside of it.

Sino-Tibetan the family is one of the largest in the world in terms of the number of speakers of its languages, primarily due to the largest people in the world - the Chinese, whose number is 1.3 billion people. She

is divided into the Chinese, Central and Western Himalayan group. Chinese the group is represented by the Chinese language, in which there are quite a few mutually understandable dialects, except for the Chinese, Hui (Dungan) speak this language. V central the group includes the languages of Burmese, Tibetan, Yizu, etc., in Western Himalayan - canauri and lahuli.

Languages Dravidian families are common in the south of the Indian subcontinent. It consists of several groups, among which the most significant in terms of the number of speakers of these languages are: southern with the languages Tamil, Malayal, Kannara, etc .; southeast with Telugu language. In addition, the Dravidian family includes gondwanese and other groups.

Kartvelskaya the family includes the Georgian language, which, in addition to Georgians, is also spoken by the Adjarians, and the closely related Megrelian, Chan and Svan languages.

Austroasian the family is distributed on the territory of Southeast and partly East and South Asia. It includes groups: viet-muongskaya, in which the most significant in terms of the number of speakers is the Vietnamese language; southeastern (Mon-Khmer) with Khmer, Khasi and other languages, as well as groups munda, miao-yao, northern (palaung wa ) and Malaccan.

Austronesian the family is distributed mainly on the islands of Southeast Asia and in a significant part of Oceania. By the number of speakers, the most numerous of its groups is western autronesian with the languages of Javanese, Bisaya, Sunda and others on the territory of Southeast Asia and the languages of the Chamorro and Belau / Palau peoples in Oceania on the islands of Micronesia. Languages in the stock Austronesian (Oceanian) groups are distributed mainly in Oceania: in Melanesia - among the peoples of the Tolai, Keapara, etc .; in Micronesia - among the Tungaru, Truk and other peoples; in Polynesia - among the Maori, Samoa and some others. In addition, this family includes central Austronesian and taiwanese groups.

Languages paratay families are distributed mainly in the mainland Southeast, as well as in the south of East Asia, the most representative in its composition thai a group with Siamese, Lao, Zhuang and a number of other languages, this family also includes the languages of the groups kam-sui, whether and galao.

In Australia and Oceania, researchers, in addition to the languages of the Austronesian family, also distinguish australian and Papuan languages. They are rather poorly studied: Australian - due to the disappearance of a significant part of the aborigines, Papuan - due to the inaccessibility of the interior of New Guinea. It has been established that these languages represent a significant number of language families. So in the composition of the Australian languages, and there are about two hundred of them, united in the phylum, such communities are distinguished (corresponding approximately to families like pama-nyunga, tivi, deraga etc.), in Papuan languages of which there are more than a thousand - trans-New Guinean, West-Papuan and a number of other families.

Afrasian (Semitic-Hamitic ) the family is distributed in North Africa and Southwest Asia. It consists of semitic group, which includes the Arabic language, however, from the point of view of modern linguistics, divided into several dozen already independent languages (including literary) - Moroccan, Egyptian, Syrian, Iraqi, etc. This group also includes: Hebrew - language Jewish ethnos; Maltese - the inhabitants of the European state of Malta and Assyrian - the language of the Aysors, the descendants of the population of Ancient Assyria, currently scattered across many countries, the largest number is noted in Iraq and Turkey. Other languages of this group are widespread in northeastern Africa (Amharic, tiger, etc.).

The languages of the other groups of the Afrasian family are spoken only by the peoples of the African continent: kushite (Oromo, Somalia, Badja, etc.); berber (Tuaregs, Zenaga, etc.) and Chadian (hausa, borax, bade, etc.).

Niger-Kordofan the family, whose peoples live mainly in Western Sudan and Western Tropical Africa, consists of two groups. Group n gamer-congo includes a number of subgroups - benue congo, qua, west atlantic and others, according to the number of speakers, the languages of such peoples as Fulbe, Yoruba, Igbo, Rwanda are distinguished. It should be especially noted that the languages of this group are spoken by the pygmies of Central Africa, some features of their culture indicate that in ancient times they spoke other, "own" languages. Kordofan the group is small both in the number of languages and in the number of speakers of them, these are the peoples of the Koalib, Tumtum, etc.

Nilo-Saharan the family is distributed mainly in the eastern part of Africa. Most of its languages belong to Shari-nile a group consisting of a number of subgroups - East Sudanese, Central Sudanese and others, other groups of this family - Saharan, Songhai, Fur, Maba and Coma. The most common Nilo-Saharan languages belong to the peoples of Luo, Dinka, Kanuri, and others.

Koisan the family is widespread in southern Africa and, in terms of the number of speakers, is mainly represented South African Khoisan group - Hottentot and Bushman languages, its other groups - sandave and hadza / hadzapi include one nation each with similar names.

On the American continent, the vast majority of the population now speaks the languages of the Indo-European family, spread here as a result of the colonization of the region in the post-Columbian period.

As for the aboriginal population, the already mentioned Eskimo-Aleutian languages in the northern part of the continent and indian - in the rest. The classification of Indian languages is a complex problem, and so far there has not been created one that would be accepted, if not by all, then by the majority of researchers. Now the most generally accepted classification of J. Greenberg, which distinguishes nine families in the Indian languages, is considered to be the most generally accepted.

Ando-equatorial the family (according to many researchers it must be divided into Andean and equatorial families) includes the languages of such peoples as Quechua, Paraguayans, Aymara, Araucans, etc. In the languages of the family penuti say (Maya, kakchikeli, kekchi, tsimshiap, etc.), Aztec-Tanoan (Aztecs, Shoshone, Hopi, Zunya, etc.), macrooto-manga (zapotecs, mishtecs, pame, etc.), macro-chibcha (chibcha-muiski, lenka, kuna, etc.), same-pano-caribbean (same, pano, caribbean, toba, etc.), hoka-siu (Sioux, Cherokee, Iroquois, Dakota, etc.), Algonquian-Mossan (Algonquins, Cree, Ojibwe, etc.), na-dene (Navajo, Athapaskan, Apache, Tlingit, etc.), tarasca - tarascans.

Isolated languages

Languages that have no resemblance to any other languages are represented almost exclusively on the Asian continent. Ainsky the language belongs to the Ainu Islands of Hokkaido (Japan), there are about 20 thousand people, although only a few hundred representatives of this people speak it. Japanese the language also belongs to the isolated, the number of Japanese is 126 million people. Nivkh the language of the Nivkhs of the Lower Amur and Sakhalin Island, numbering 4.5 thousand people. is a "splinter" of the so-called Paleo-Asian peoples who once lived here, displaced or assimilated by newcomers from the south. Ket the language belongs to the Kets of the Upper and Middle Yenisei, numbering about 1,000 people. In the highlands of North India on Burish the language is spoken by Burishki / Burushaski, there are about 50 thousand of them. The only non-Asian isolated language is Basque, belonging to the Basques of the north of the Iberian Peninsula, whose population is 1.2 million people. It is the only one of the peoples of Western Europe that has survived here after the resettlement of the Indo-Europeans. In addition, sometimes isolated languages include Korean language, the number of Koreans is about 62 million people, but many researchers include one hundred in the Altai language family.

In conclusion, it should be noted that in hard-to-reach regions, in particular, in the Amazon basin, in West and Central Africa and in New Guinea, linguists have noted cases of the discovery of isolated languages, but their poor knowledge does not allow us to confidently confirm the validity of such conclusions.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

STATE UNIVERSITY

CHAIR OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY

MAIN LANGUAGE FAMILIES

Performed

5th year student

OKU "Master"

specialties

"Language and Literature

(English)"

Introduction

1. Indo-European languages

1.1. Indo-Aryan languages

1.2. Iranian languages

1.3. Romance languages

1.4. Celtic languages

1.5. Germanic languages

1.6. Baltic languages

1.7. Slavic languages

1.8. Armenian language

1.9. Greek language

2. Sino-Tibetan family

3. Finno-Ugric family

4. Turkic family

5. Semitic-Hamitic (Afrasian) family

List of used literature

Introduction

It should be noted that there are about 20 linguistic families in total. The largest of them is the Indo-European family, whose languages are spoken by about 45% of the world's population. Its distribution area is also the largest. It covers Europe, Southwest and South Asia, North and South America, Australia. The most numerous group in this family is Indo-Aryan, which includes the languages Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, etc. The Romance group is also very large, including Spanish, Italian, French and some other languages. The same can be said about the Germanic group (English, German and a number of other languages), the Slavic group (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, etc.), the Iranian group (Persian, Tajik, Baluch, etc.).

The second largest speaker is the Sino-Tibetan (Sino-Tibetan) family, whose languages are spoken by 22% of all inhabitants of the planet. It is clear that such a large share in the world is provided by the Chinese language.

The large ones also include the Niger-Kordofan family (common in sub-Saharan Africa), the Afrasian family (mainly in the Near and Middle East), the Austronesian family (mainly in Southeast Asia and Oceania), the Dravidian family (in South Asia), Altai family (in Asia and Europe).

Currently, there are more than two and a half thousand languages. The exact number of languages has not been established as this is a very difficult process. There are still areas that are poorly studied in terms of language. These include some areas of Australia, Oceania, South America. Therefore, the study and study of the origin of languages is very relevant.

1. Andndoeuropean languages

Indo-European languages are one of the largest language families in Eurasia (about 200 languages). They have also spread over the past five centuries in the Americas, Australia and partly in Africa. The most active was the expansion of the languages of English, Spanish, French, Portuguese, Dutch, Russian, which led to the emergence of Indo-European speech on all continents. The first 20 most common languages (counting both their native speakers and those who use them as a second language in international and international communication) now include English, Hindi and Urdu, Spanish, Russian, Portuguese, German, French, Punjabi, Italian, Ukrainian.

The Indo-European (according to the tradition adopted among German scientists, Indo-Germanic) family of languages is the best studied: on the material of the study of its languages in the 20s. 19th century comparative historical linguistics began to form, the research methods and techniques of which were then transferred to other language families. The founders of Indo-European and comparative studies include the Germans Franz Bopp and Jacob Grimm, the Dane Rasmus Christian Rask and the Russian Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov.

Comparativists aim to establish the nature and degree of similarity (primarily material, and to some extent also typological) of the studied languages, to find out the ways of its origin (from a common source or due to rapprochement as a result of long-term contacts) and the reasons for the divergence (divergence) and convergence (convergence) between the languages of the same family, to reconstruct the proto-linguistic state (in the form of a set of archetypes as a kind of matrix, in which the accumulated knowledge about the internal structure of the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European is recorded) and to trace the directions of subsequent development.

Today, it is most often believed that the area of the initial or rather early spread of the speakers of the Indo-European language extended from Central Europe and the Northern Balkans to the Black Sea region (southern Russian steppes). At the same time, some researchers believe that the initial center of the irradiation of Indo-European languages and cultures lay in the Middle East, in close proximity to the speakers of the Kartvelian, Afrasian and, probably, Dravidian and Ural-Altai languages. The traces of these contacts provide a basis for the advancement of the Nostratic hypothesis.

Indo-European linguistic unity could have as its source either a single proto-language, a base language (or, rather, a group of closely related dialects), or the situation of a linguistic union as a result of the development of a number of originally different languages. Both perspectives, in principle, do not contradict each other, one of them usually gains an advantage in a certain period of development of the linguistic community.

The relations between members of the Indo-European family were constantly changing due to frequent migrations, and therefore the currently accepted classification of Indo-European languages should be corrected when referring to different stages in the history of this linguistic community. For earlier periods, the proximity of the Indo-Aryan and Iranian, Baltic and Slavic languages is characteristic, the proximity of the Italic and Celtic languages is less noticeable. The languages of the Baltic, Slavic, Thracian, Albanian and Indo-Iranian have many common features, and the Italic and Celtic languages with Germanic, Venetian and Illyrian.

The main features characterizing the relatively ancient state of the Indo-European source language:

a) In phonetics: functioning of [e] and [o] as variants of one phoneme; the probability that vowels at an earlier stage have no phonemic status; special role [a] in the system; the presence of laryngeal, the disappearance of which led to the opposition of long and short vowels, as well as to the appearance of melodic stress; distinguishing between occlusive voiced, voiceless and aspirated; the difference between the three rows of the posterior lingual, the tendency to palatalization and labialization of consonants in certain positions;

b) In morphology: heteroclytic declination; the probable presence of an ergative (active) case; a relatively simple case system and the later appearance of a number of indirect cases from combinations of a name with a postposition, etc .; the proximity of the nominative for -s and the genitive with the same element; the presence of an "indeterminate" case; the opposition of the animate and inanimate classes, which gave rise to the three-clan system; the presence of two series of verb forms, which led to the development of thematic and athematic conjugation, transitivity / intransition, activity / inactivity; the presence of two series of personal endings of the verb, which became the reason for the differentiation of the present and past tense, mood forms; the presence of forms on -s, which led to the emergence of one of the classes of presentation stems, the sigmatic aorist, a number of mood forms and derivative conjugation;

with) In syntax: the interdependence of the places of the members of the proposal; the role of particles and preverbs; the beginning of the transition of a number of full-valued words into service elements; some initial features of analyticism.

1 .1 Indo-Aryan languages

Indo-Aryan languages (Indian) - a group of related languages, dating back to the ancient Indian language.

Indo-Aryan (Indian) languages (more than 40) include: the Apabhransha group of languages, Assami, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Vedic, Gujarati, Magahi, Maithili, Maldivian, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Pali, Punjabi, Pahari, Sanskrit, Sinhalese, Sindhi, Urdu, Hindi, Gypsy. Areas of distribution of living Indian languages: northern and central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Republic of Maldives, Nepal. The total number of speakers is 770 million.

All of them go back to the ancient Indian language and, together with the Iranian, Dardic and Nuristan languages, belong to the Indo-Iranian linguistic community. The most ancient period of development is represented by the Vedic language (the language of the cult, from the 12th century BC) and Sanskrit (epic period: 3-2 centuries BC; epigraphic period: the first centuries of our era; classical period: 4- 5th centuries AD). linguistic Turkic Indo-European grammar

Features of modern Indian languages:

a)Vphonetics: number of phonemes from 30 to 50: preservation of aspirated and cerebral consonant classes; the rarity of opposing long and short vowels; lack of an initial combination of consonants;

b)Vmorphology: the loss of the old inflection, the development of analytical forms and the creation of a new inflection;

c)Vsyntax: fixed position of the verb; wide distribution of official words;

d)Vvocabulary: the presence of words dating back to Sanskrit and external borrowings (from the non-Aryan languages of India, from Arabic, Persian, English); the formation of a number of local linguistic unions (Himalayan, etc.); the presence of numerous alphabets, historically dating back to the Brahmi.

1 .2 Iranian languages

Iranian languages are a group of languages dating back to the reconstructed ancient Iranian language, which is part of the Aryan branch of the Indo-European family. Iranian languages are spoken in the Middle East, Central Asia, Pakistan and the Caucasus among the Iranian peoples, whose number is currently estimated at about 150 million.

The Iranian languages (over 60) include the languages of Avestan, Azeri, Alanian, Bactrian, Bashkardi, Baluch, Vanj, Wakhan, Gilan, Dari, Old Persian, Zaza (language / dialect), Ishkashim, Kumzari (language / dialect), Kurdish, Mazandaran, Median, Mundjan, Ormuri, Ossetian, Pamir languages, Parachi, Parthian, Persian, Pashto / Pashto, Sangisari language / dialect, Sargulam, Semnan, Sivendi (language / dialect), Scythian, Sogdian, Middle Persian, Tajik language / dialect), Talysh, Tat, Khorezm, Khotanosak, Shugnano-Rushan group of languages, Yagnob, Yazgulam, etc.

Features of Iranian languages:

a)in phonetics: preservation in the ancient Iranian languages of the subsequently lost correlation of duration; preservation in consonantism mainly of the proto-language system; the development in later languages of correlations on aspiration, presented in different languages, is not the same.

b)in morphology: at the ancient stage - inflectional shaping and ablaut of the root and suffix; multitype of declension and conjugation; the trinity of the number and gender system; multi-reliable inflectional paradigm; use for constructing verb forms of inflections, suffixes, augment, different types of stems; beginnings of analytical constructions; in later languages - the unification of the types of shaping; the withering away of ablaut; binary systems of number. and gender (up to the withering away of the genus in a number of languages); the formation of new verb analytical and secondary inflectional forms based on participles; variety of face and number indicators of the verb; new formal indicators of liability, collateral, species characteristics, time.

c)in syntax: the presence of an izafet design; the presence of an ergative sentence structure in a number of languages.

The first written monuments from the 6th century. BC. Cuneiform for Old Persian; Middle Persian (and a number of other languages) monuments (from the 2nd - 3rd centuries AD) on the varieties of Aramaic writing; special alphabet based on Middle Persian for Avestan texts.

1 .3 Romance languages

Romance languages are a group of languages and dialects that are part of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family and are genetically descended from a common ancestor - Latin. The name Romanesque comes from the Latin word Romanus (Roman).

The Romance group unites languages that emerged on the basis of Latin:

Aromanian (Aromunian),

Galician

Gascon

Dalmatian (extinct at the end of the 19th century),

Spanish,

Istro-Romanian,

Italian,

Catalan,

Ladino (the language of the Jews of Spain),

Meglen Romanian (Meglenite),

Moldavian

Portuguese

Provencal (Occitan),

· Romance; they include: Swiss, or Western, Romansh / Graubünden / Kurval / Romansh, represented by at least two varieties - Surselvian / Obwald and Upper Engadian, sometimes subdivided into a larger number of languages;

Tyrolean, or Central, Romansh / Ladin / Dolomite / Trentinian and

Friulian / Oriental Romansh, often singled out in a special group,

Romanian,

Sardinian (Sardinian),

Franco-Provencal,

· French.

Literary languages have their own variants: French - in Belgium, Switzerland, Canada; Spanish in Latin America, Portuguese in Brazil.

More than 10 Creole languages have emerged on the basis of French, Portuguese, Spanish.

In Spain and countries Latin America these languages are often referred to as Neo-Latin. The total number of speakers is about 580 million people. More than 60 countries use Romance languages as national or official languages.

Zones of distribution of Romance languages:

· "Old Romania": Italy, Portugal, almost all of Spain, France, south of Belgium, west and south of Switzerland, the main territory of Romania, almost all of Moldova, some blotches in the north of Greece, south and north-west of Yugoslavia;

· "New Romania": part of North America (Quebec in Canada, Mexico), almost all of Central America and South America, most of the Antilles;

· Countries that were colonies, where Romance languages (French, Spanish, Portuguese), without displacing the local ones, became official - almost all of Africa, small territories in South Asia and Oceania.

Romance languages are a continuation and development of folk-Latin speech in the territories that became part of the Roman Empire. Their history shows tendencies towards differentiation (divergence) and integration (convergence).

Main features of Romance languages:

a)in phonetics: the general Roman system has 7 vowels (the greatest preservation is in Italian); development of specific vowels (nasal in French and Portuguese, labialized front vowels in French, Provencal, Romansh; mixed vowels in Balkan-Romanian); the formation of diphthongs; reduction of unstressed vowels (especially final); neutralization of openness / closeness e and O in unstressed syllables; simplification and transformation of consonant groups; the emergence as a result of palatalization of affricates, which have passed into slit in some languages; weakening or reduction of the intervocal consonant; weakening and reduction of a consonant in the outcome of a syllable; a tendency to open syllable and limited consonant compatibility; the tendency towards phonetic linking of words in the speech stream (especially in French);

b)in morphology: preservation of inflection with a strong tendency towards analyticism; the name has 2 numbers, 2 genders, the absence of a case category (except for the Balkan-Romance), the transfer of object relations by prepositions; variety of forms of the article; preservation of the case system of pronouns; coordination of adjectives with names in gender and number; formation of adverbs from adjectives by means of the -mente suffix (except for Balkan-Romanian); ramified system of analytical verb forms; a typical scheme of a romance verb contains 16 tenses and 4 moods; 2 pledges; peculiar impersonal forms;

c)in syntax: word order is fixed in some cases; an adjective usually follows a noun; determinatives precede the verb (except Balkan-Romance).

1 .4 Celtic languages

The Celtic group is formed by the languages Breton, Welsh (Kimri), Gaulish, Gaelic, Irish, Celtiberian, Cornish, Cumbrian, Lepontic, Maine (K) sky, Pictish, Shotlad (Er). In the 1st millennium BC. Celtic languages were spread over a large part of Europe (now it is part of Germany, France, Great Britain, Ireland, Spain, northern Italy), reaching in the east to the Carpathians and through the Balkans to Asia Minor. Later, the area of their distribution was greatly reduced; the languages of Manx, Cornish, Celtiberian, Lepontic, Gallic became extinct. Irish, Gaelic, Welsh and Breton are alive. Irish is one of the official languages in Ireland. Welsh is used in the press and on radio, Breton and Gaelic are used in everyday communication.

The vocalism of New Celtic languages is characterized by interaction with neighboring consonants. As a result of this, widespread (in diachrony and in synchrony) rounding, palatalization, mutation, narrowing, contact nasalization, etc. Some of these phenomena, as the causes that caused them disappear, turn into morphological means for expressing numbers, kind, etc.

Insular languages sharply deviate from the ancient Indo-European type: numerous combinatorial changes (aspiration, palatalization and labialization of consonants); infixation of pronouns in verb forms; "conjugated" prepositions; specific use of verbal names; word order. These and many other features distinguish the Celtic languages from the Indo-European ones. languages (explanations: influence of non-Indo-European substratum; historical innovations). Preservation of a number of archaic features. Changes in living languages: loss of opposition between personal absolute and conjunctive verb endings in many tenses and moods (Irish).

1.5 Germanic languages

The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European family. Distributed in a number of Western European countries (Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein), North. America (USA, Canada), southern Africa (South Africa, Namibia), Asia (India), Australia, New Zealand. The total number of speakers as if they were family is about 550 million people.

Modern Germanic languages are divided into 2 subgroups: West Germanic and North Germanic (Scandinavian).

West Germanic languages include English, Frisian, High German (German), Dutch, Boer, Flemish, and Yiddish.

English is the native language of the majority of the population of the United Kingdom of Great Britain - England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, USA. In addition, English is spoken as an official language in the Republic of South Africa, the Republic of India and Pakistan.

Frisian distributed among the population of the Friesland Islands in the North Sea. The literary Frisian language developed on the basis of West Frisian dialects.

High German is the native language of the population of Germany, Austria and a large part of Switzerland, as well as the literary language of the urban population of the northern regions of Germany; the rural population of these areas still speaks a special dialect called Low German or Platdeutsch. In the Middle Ages, Low German was the language of an extensive folk literature that has come down to us in a number of literary works.

Dutch Language is the native language of the Dutch people.

Afrikaans, also called "Afrikaans", distributed over a large area of the Republic of South Africa. The Boer language, close to Dutch, is spoken by the Boers or Afrikaners, the descendants of Dutch colonists who left Holland in the 17th century.

Flemish very close to Dutch. It is spoken by the population of the northern part of Belgium and partly of the Netherlands. Along with French, Flemish is the official language of the Belgian state.

Yiddish- the language of the Jewish population of Eastern Europe, developed in X - XII centuries based on Middle High German dialects.

North Germanic languages include Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese.

Swedish is the native language of the Swedish people and the population of the coastal strip of Finland, where representatives of the ancient Swedish tribes moved in the distant past. Of the Swedish dialects that exist today, the dialect of the inhabitants of the island of Gotland, the so-called Gutnic dialect, stands out sharply for its peculiarities. Modern Swedish consists of German words written and arranged according to English grammar. The active Swedish vocabulary is not very large.

Danish is the native language of the Danish people and was for several centuries the state and literary language of Norway, which was part of the Danish state from the end of the XIV century. until 1814

Swedish and Danish languages, in the past close, but significantly diverged from each other at the present time, are sometimes combined into a subgroup of East Scandinavian languages.

Norwegian, the native language of the Norwegian people, is spoken in Norway. Due to the special historical conditions of the development of the Norwegian people, forced for almost 400 years to be ruled by the Danes, the development of the Norwegian language was greatly delayed. Currently, Norway is in the process of forming a single national Norwegian language, which by its characteristics occupies an intermediate position between Swedish and Danish.

In Icelandic says the population of Iceland. The ancestors of modern Icelanders were Norwegians who settled here in the 10th century. During almost a thousand years of independent development, the Icelandic language acquired a number of new features that significantly distinguish it from the Norwegian language, and also retained many of the features characteristic of the Old Norwegian language, while the Norwegian language has lost them. All this has led to the fact that the difference between Norwegian and (new) Icelandic languages is now very significant.

Faroese language, common in the Faroe Islands lying north of the Shetland Islands, just like Icelandic, retained many features of the Old Norse language, from which it split off.

The languages Norwegian, Icelandic and Faroese are sometimes combined on the basis of their origin into one group called the West Scandinavian language group. However, the facts of modern Norwegian show that in its present state it is much closer to Swedish and Danish than to Icelandic and Faroese.

Distinctive features of the Germanic languages:

a)in phonetics: dynamic stress on the first (root) syllable; reduction of unstressed syllables; assimilative variation of vowels, which led to historical alternations in umlaut (in the row) and refraction (in the degree of ascent); common Germanic movement of consonants;

b)in morphology: wide use of ablaut in inflection and word formation; formation (next to a strong preterite) of a weak preterite using a dental suffix; distinguishing between strong and weak declensions of adjectives; manifestation of a tendency towards analyticism;

c)in word formation: the special role of the nominal word composition (base composition); prevalence of suffixation in nominal word production and prefixation in verbal word production; the presence of conversion (especially in English);

d)in syntax: tendency to fix the word order;

e)in vocabulary: the layers are natively Indo-European and common Germanic, borrowings from the Celtic, Latin, Greek, French languages.

1.6 Baltic languages

The Baltic group (the name belongs to G.G.F. Nesselman, 1845) includes the languages Latvian, Lithuanian, Prussian.

Modern Baltic languages are widespread in the eastern Baltic (Lithuania, Latvia, the northeastern part of Poland - Suwalkia, partly Belarus).

Modern Baltic languages are represented by Lithuanian and Latvian (sometimes Latgalian is also distinguished). The extinct Baltic languages include Prussian (up to the 18th century; East Prussia), Yatvyazhsky, or Sudava (up to the 18th century; north-east Poland, southern Lithuania, adjacent regions of Belarus), Curonian (up to the middle of the 17th century; on the coast Baltic Sea within modern Lithuania and Latvia), Selonian, or Selian (documents of the 13-15th centuries; part of eastern Latvia and northeast Prussia and, probably, the Protva river basin).

Features of the Baltic languages:

a)Vphonetics: the oppositions of palatalized and non-palatalized, simple consonants and affricates, tense and non-tense, long and short vowels are essential; the presence of intonation oppositions; the possibility of accumulation of up to 3 consonants at the beginning of a syllable; the presence of closed and open syllables;

b)Vmorphology: the use of quantitative and qualitative alternation of vowels in the verb; the names of the movement of stress, change of intonation; wealth of suffix inventory; remnants of the neuter; 2 numbers; 7 cases, including instrumentalis, locative and vocative); 3 degrees of graduation; 5 types of noun stems; distinction between adjectives of nominal and pronominal types of declension; mood indicative, conditional, desirable, imperative, and in Latvian ascending to the Finno-Ugric substratum, obligatory and retelling; pledges are valid, returnable, passive; various types of tenses and moods;

c)Vsyntax: precedence of the genitive to other cases in the chain of names;

d)Vvocabulary: most of the words from the original I.-e. vocabulary; practically unified vocabulary of the Baltic languages; significant commonality of the Baltic and Slavic vocabulary; borrowings from the Finno-Ugric, German, Polish, Russian languages.

1.7 Slavic languages

The Slavic group includes the languages Belarusian, Bulgarian, Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian, Macedonian, Polabian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovenian, Old Slavonic, Ukrainian, Czech.

Slavic languages are widespread in Europe and Asia (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Macedonia, Croatia, Slovenia, as well as the states of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Germany, Austria). Slavic speakers also live in the countries of America, Africa, Australia. The total number of speakers is about 300 million people.

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages form groups: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian), South Slavic (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, or Serbian and Croatian, Slovenian) and West Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Polish with Kashubian, Upper and Lower Sorbian).

general characteristics Slavic languages

a)Grammar

Grammatically, Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, have a highly developed system of noun inflections, up to seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, prepositional and vocative). The verb in Slavic languages has three simple tenses (past, present and future), but it is also characterized by such a complex characteristic as the form. The verb can be imperfect or perfect denotes the completeness of an action of the form. The participles and participles are widely used (you can compare their use with the use of participles and gerunds in English). In all Slavic languages, except for Bulgarian and Macedonian, there is no article. The languages of the Slavic subfamily are more conservative and, therefore, are closer to the Proto-Indo-European language than the languages of the Germanic and Romance groups, as evidenced by the preservation by the Slavic languages of seven out of eight cases for nouns that were characters for the Proto-Indo-European language, as well as the development of the form of the verb.

b)Vocabulary

The vocabulary of Slavic languages is predominantly of Indo-European origin. There is also an important element of the mutual influence of the Baltic and Slavic languages on each other, which is reflected in the vocabulary. Borrowed words or word translations go back to the Iranian and Germanic groups, as well as to Greek, Latin, and Turkic languages. They also influenced vocabulary and languages such as Italian and French. Slavic languages also borrowed words from each other. Borrowing foreign words tends to be translated and imitated rather than simply absorbed.

c)Writing

Perhaps it is in writing that the most significant differences between the Slavic languages lie. Some Slavic languages (in particular, Czech, Slovak, Slovenian and Polish) have a writing system based on the Latin alphabet, since the speakers of these languages belong mainly to the Catholic confession. Other Slavic languages (for example, Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Macedonian, and Bulgarian) use adapted versions of the Cyrillic alphabet as a result of the influence of the Orthodox Church. The only language, Serbo-Croatian, uses two alphabets: Cyrillic for Serbian and Latin for Croatian.

1 .8 Armenian language

Armenian is an Indo-European language, usually separated into a separate subgroup, less often combined with Greek and Phrygian languages.

It is distributed in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Russia, Syria, Lebanon, USA, Iran, France and other countries. The total number of speakers is over 6 million people.

It is assumed that the Armenian language is based on the language of the tribal union of Hayas-Armenians within the state of Urartu. The Armenian ethnos was formed in the 7th century. BC. in the Armenian Highlands.

In the history of the written literary language, 3 stages are distinguished: ancient (from the beginning of the 5th century, from the time of the creation of the Armenian alphabet, to the 11th century, when the oral ancient Armenian fell out of use; the written version, the grabar, functioned in literature, competing with the new literary language , until the end of the 19th century, and has survived to this day in the cult sphere); middle (from the 12th to the 16th centuries; the formation of dialects), new (from the 17th century), characterized by the presence of eastern and western variants of the literary language and the presence of many dialects.

Properties of the Armenian language:

a)in phonetics: at the ancient stage - the Indo-European phonological system with some modifications; removal of opposition in longitude / shortness; the transition of syllabic Indo-European sonants to vowels and non-syllabic sonants to consonants; the emergence of new fricative phonemes; the appearance of an affricate; change in explosives by interruption, similar to the Germanic movement of consonants; the presence of three rows - voiced, voiceless and aspirated; in the middle period - stunning voiced and voiced deaf; monophthongization of diphthongs; in the new period - the discrepancy between the two options, primarily in consonantism.

b)in morphology: predominantly inflectional-synthetic system; the appearance of analytical verb constructions already in the ancient period; preservation of the three-row system of demonstrative pronouns; inheritance from I.-e. the basic principles of the formation of verbal and nominal stems, individual case and verbal inflections, word-formation suffixes; the presence of 2 numbers; the withering away of the category of the genus in the eastern version; the use of the agglutinative principle of education plural. numbers; distinction of 7 cases and 8 types of declension; preservation of almost all categories of Indo-European pronouns; the presence of a verb with 3 pledges (real, passive and medium), 3 persons, 2 numbers, 5 moods (indicative, imperative, desirable, conditional, incentive), 3 tenses (present, past, future), 3 types of action (performed, committed and to be performed), 2 types of conjugation, simple and analytical forms (with a predominance of analytical), 7 participles.

1.9 Greek language

The Greek language forms a special group in the Indo-European community. Genetically most closely related to the ancient Macedonian language. Distributed in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and the adjacent islands of the Ionian and Aegean Seas, as well as in southern Albania, Egypt, southern Italy, Ukraine, Russia.

Main periods: Ancient Greek (14th century BC-4th century AD), Middle Greek, or Byzantine (5th-15th centuries), Modern Greek (from the 15th century).

The main stages in the development of Ancient Greek: archaic ((14-12 centuries BC - 8 centuries BC), classical (from 8-7 to 4th centuries BC), Hellenistic (time the formation of Koine; 4th-1st centuries BC), Late Greek (1st-4th centuries AD) .In Ancient Greek, dialect groups were distinguished: Ionian-Attic, Arcado-Cypriot (South Achaean), Aeolian (North Achaean, connected with the language of the Crete-Mycenaean monuments), Dorian.

From the end of the 5th century. BC. the Attic superdialect became the literary language. In the Hellenistic era, on the basis of the Attic and Ionian dialects, the common Greek Koine was formed in literary and colloquial varieties. Later, there was a return to the Attic norm, which led to the competition of two autonomous linguistic traditions.

Modern Greek Koine is formed on the basis of southern dialects and spread widely in the 18-19th centuries. Literary modern Greek language exists in two versions: kafarevusa "purified" and dimotics "folk".

In the Greek language, many structural properties are manifested by virtue of a long historical interaction during the formation of the Balkan linguistic union.

Features of the ancient Greek language:

a)in phonetics: 5 vowel phonemes, differing in length / brevity; the formation of long vowels or diphthongs from adjacent vowels; musical stress, of three types: acute, dull and clothed; 17 consonants, including occlusive voiced, voiceless and aspirated, nasal, flowing, affricates, spirants; thick and weak aspiration; transition I.-e. syllabic sonants in the "vowel + consonant" (or "consonant + vowel") groups; reflection and.-e. labiovelar, mainly in the form of anterior lingual or labial;

b)in morphology: 3 kinds; the presence of articles; 3 numbers; 5 cases; 3 types of declination; 4 inclinations; 3 pledges; 2 types of conjugation; 2 groups of times (main: present, futurum, perfect; historical: aorist, imperfect, pluperfect);

c)in syntax: free word order; developed system of parataxis and hypotaxis; the important role of particles and prepositions;

d)in vocabulary: layers are primordial Greek, pre-Greek (Pelasgian), borrowed (from the languages of the Semitic, Persian, Latin).

2. Sino-Tibetan family

The Sino-Tibetan languages (Sino-Tibetan languages) are one of the largest language families in the world. Includes over 100, according to other sources, several hundred languages, from tribal to national. The total number of speakers is over 1,100 million.

In modern linguistics, the Sino-Tibetan languages are usually divided into 2 branches, different in the degree of their internal dismemberment and in their place on the linguistic map of the world, - Chinese and Tibeto-Burmese... The first is the Chinese language with its many dialects and dialect groups. It is spoken by over 1,050 million people, including about 700 million in the dialects of the northern group. The main area of its distribution is the PRC south of the Gobi and east of Tibet.

The rest of the Sino-Tibetan languages, numbering about 60 million speakers, are part of the Tibeto-Burmese branch. The peoples who speak these languages inhabit most of Myanmar (former Burma), Nepal, Bhutan, vast areas of southwestern China and northeastern India. The most important Tibeto-Burmese languages or groups of closely related languages: Burmese (up to 30 million speakers) in Myanmar and (over 5.5 million) in Sichuan and Yunnan (PRC); Tibetan (over 5 million) in Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan (PRC), Kashmir (northern India), Nepal, Bhutan; Karen languages (over 3 million) in Myanmar near the border with Thailand: Hani (1.25 million) in Yunnan; manipuri, or meithei (over 1 million); bodo, or kachari (750 thousand), and garo (up to 700 thousand) in India; jingpo, or kachin (about 600 thousand), in Myanmar and Yunnan; fox (up to 600 thousand) in Yunnan; Tamang (about 550 thousand), Newar (over 450 thousand) and Gurung (about 450 thousand) in Nepal. The endangered language of the Tujia people (up to 3 million people) in Hunan (PRC) belongs to the Tibeto-Burmese branch, but by now most of the Tujia have switched to Chinese.

Sino-Tibetan languages are syllabic, isolating with a greater or lesser tendency to agglutination. The main phonetic unit is a syllable, and the boundaries of syllables, as a rule, are at the same time the boundaries of morphemes or words. Sounds in a syllable are arranged in a strictly defined order (usually - a noisy consonant, sonant, intermediate vowel, main vowel, consonant; all elements, except for the main vowel, may be absent). Consonant combinations are not found in all languages and are possible only at the beginning of a syllable. The number of consonants found at the end of a syllable is significantly less than the number of possible initial consonants (usually no more than 6-8); in some languages only open syllables are allowed or there is only one final nasal consonant. Many languages have a tone. In languages whose history is well known, one can observe a gradual simplification of consonantism and an increase in the complexity of the system of vowels and tones.

The morpheme usually corresponds to the syllable; the root is usually immutable. However, in many languages these principles are violated. Thus, in Burmese, the alternation of consonants is possible at the root; in classical Tibetan there were non-syllable prefixes and suffixes, expressing, in particular, the grammatical categories of the verb. The predominant way of word formation is the addition of roots. Highlighting a word is often a difficult problem: it is difficult to distinguish a complex word from a phrase, an affix from a service word. Adjectives in Sino-Tibetan languages are grammatically closer to verbs than to names; sometimes they are included in the verb category as “quality verbs”. Conversion is widespread.

3. FInno-Ugric family

The Finno-Ugric (or Finno-Ugric) family is divided into four groups: the Baltic-Finnish (these are Finnish, Estonian, Karelian, Vepsian, Izhorian), Perm (Udmurt, Komi-Zyryan and Komi-Permian languages), the Volga, to which they belong the Mari and Mordovian languages, and the Ugric group covering the Hungarian, Mansi and Khanty languages. The separate language of the Sami living in Norway, Sweden, Finland and on the Kola Peninsula is closest to the Baltic-Finnish languages. The most widespread Finno-Ugric language is Hungarian, and in the neighboring countries - Estonian.

All Finno-Ugric languages have common features and a common basic vocabulary. These features originate in a hypothetical Proto-Finno-Ugric language. About 200 basic words of this language have been proposed, including the roots of words for concepts such as the names of relationships, body parts, and basic numbers. This general vocabulary includes, according to Lyle Campbell, at least 55 words related to fishing, 33 to hunting, 12 to deer, 17 to plants, 31 to technology, 26 to construction, 11 to clothing, 18 - to climate, 4 - to society, 11 - to religion, as well as three words related to trade.

Most of the Finno-Ugric languages belong to agglutinative languages, the common features of which are changing words by adding suffixes (instead of prepositions) and syntactic coordination of suffixes. In addition, there is no gender category in the Finno-Ugric languages. Therefore, there is only one pronoun with the meaning of "he", "she" and "it", for example, hдn in Finnish, tдmд in Votic, tema in Estonian, x in Hungarian, ciy? in the Komi language, tudo in the Mari language, so in the Udmurt language.

In many Finno-Ugric languages, possessive adjectives and pronouns such as "my" or "your" are rarely used. Possession is expressed by declination. For this, suffixes are used, sometimes together with a pronoun in the genitive case: "my dog" in Finnish minun koirani (literally "me, my dog"), from the word koira - a dog.

4. Turkic family

The Turkic family unites more than 20 languages, including:

1) Turkish (formerly Ottoman); writing since 1929 based on the Latin alphabet; until then for several centuries - based on the Arabic alphabet.

2) Azerbaijani.

3) Turkmen.

4) Gagauz.

5) Crimean Tatar.

6) Karachay-Balkarian.

7) Kumyk - was used as a common language for the Caucasian peoples of Dagestan.

8) Nogai.

9) Karaite.

10) Tatar, with three dialects - middle, western (Misharsky) and eastern (Siberian).

11) Bashkir.

12) Altai (Oirotsky).

13) Shor with dialects of Kondom and Mrass 3.

14) Khakassian (with dialects of Sogai, Beltir, Kachin, Koibal, Kyzyl, Shor).

15) Tuvinsky.

16) Yakutsk.

17) Dolgan.

18) Kazakh.

19) Kyrgyz.

20) Uzbek.

21) Karakalpak.

22) Uygur (novoygur).

23) Chuvash, a descendant of the language of the Kama Bulgars, writing from the very beginning based on the Russian alphabet.

24) Orkhon - according to the Orkhon-Yenisei runic inscriptions, the language (or languages) of the powerful state of the 7th-8th centuries. n. NS. in Northern Mongolia on the river. Orkhon. The name is conditional.

25) Pechenezhsky - the language of the steppe nomads of the 9th-11th centuries. AD

26) Polovtsian (Kuman) - according to the Polovtsian-Latin dictionary compiled by Italians, the language of the steppe nomads of the 11th-14th centuries.

27) Old Uigur - the language of a huge state in Central Asia in the 9th-11th centuries. n. NS. with writing based on the modified Aramaic alphabet.

28) Chagatai is a literary language of the 15th-16th centuries. AD in Central Asia; Arabic graphics.

29) Bulgarian - the language of the Bulgar kingdom at the mouth of the Kama; The Bulgarian language formed the basis of the Chuvash language, a part of the Bulgars moved to the Balkan Peninsula and, mixing with the Slavs, became a constituent element (superstratum) of the Bulgarian language.

30) Khazar - the language of a large state of the 7th-10th centuries. AD, in the area of the lower reaches of the Volga and Don, close to the Bulgar.

5. Semitic-Hamitic(afrasian) family

Afrasian languages are a macrofamily (superfamily) of languages, which includes six families of languages that have signs of common origin (the presence of related root and grammatical morphemes).

The Afrasian languages include both living and dead languages. The former are currently distributed over a vast area, occupying the territory of Western Asia (from Mesopotamia to the coast of the Mediterranean and Red Seas) and vast territories of East and North Africa - up to the Atlantic coast. Separate groups of representatives of the Afrasian languages are found outside the main territory of their distribution.

The total number of speakers at present, according to various estimates, ranges between 270 million and 300 million. The Afrasian macrofamily includes the following language families (or branches).

Berber-Libyan languages. The living languages of this family are spoken in North Africa west of Egypt and Libya to Mauritania, as well as in the oases of the Sahara, up to Nigeria and Senegal. The Berber tribes of the Tuareg (Sahara) use their own letter, called Tifinagh, which goes back to the ancient Libyan script. Libyan writing is represented by short rock carvings found in the Sahara and the Libyan desert; the earliest of them date back to the 2nd century BC. NS.

Ancient Egyptian language with its later descendant, Coptic is a language of the dead. It was distributed in the valley of the middle and lower Nile (modern Egypt). The first written monuments of Ancient Egyptian date back to the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. NS. It existed as a living and spoken language until the 5th century A.D. NS. Monuments of the Coptic language have been known since the 3rd century AD. NS.; by the XIV century, it fell out of use, being preserved as the cult language of the Coptic Christian church. In everyday life, the Copts, who, according to the end of 1999, number about 6 million people, use the Arabic language and are now considered an ethno-confessional group of Egyptian Arabs.

Kushite languages of which only live ones are known, common in Northeast Africa: in northeastern Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, northern Kenya and western Tanzania. According to data from the late 1980s, the number of speakers is about 25.7 million.

Omot languages. Living unwritten languages, spoken in the southwest of Ethiopia. According to the late 1980s, the number of speakers is about 1.6 million people. As an independent branch of the Afrasian macrofamily began to stand out only recently (G. Fleming, M. Bender, I. M. Dyakonov). Some scholars attribute the Omot languages to the Western Kushite group, which separated from the Prakushite earlier than the rest.

Semitic languages. Most numerous of the Afrasian language families; is represented by modern living languages (Arabic, Maltese, New Aramaic dialects, Hebrew, Ethiosemite - Amharic, Tigre, Tigray, etc.), common in the Arab East, Israel, Ethiopia and North Africa, islands - in other countries of Asia and Africa. The number of speakers according to different sources fluctuates, amounting to about 200 million.

Chadian languages alive; this family includes more than 150 modern languages and dialect groups. Distributed in Central and Western Sudan, in the area of Lake Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon. The most numerous speakers of the Hausa language, whose number is about 30-40 million people; for most of them, Hausa is not their native language, but the language of interethnic communication.

conclusions

In this work, the main language families are characterized, language groups are considered, features of the linguistic structure of languages, including phonetics, grammar, vocabulary. Of course, languages differ both in prevalence and social functions, as well as in the peculiarities of the phonetic structure and vocabulary, morphological and syntactic characteristics.

Emphasis should be placed on the huge role that various classifications of the world's languages play in modern linguistics. This is not only a compact fixation of the many internal connections of the latter discovered by science, but also a certain landmark in their consistent study.

It should be noted that some languages are outside the general classification, do not belong to one of the families, and Japanese belongs to them. Many languages are so poorly learned that they do not fall under one of the classifications. This is explained not only by the large number of languages common on the globe, but also by the fact that a linguist studying existing (and existing) languages has to deal with factual data that are very dissimilar and very different in their very essence.

List of used literature

1. Arakin V. D. History of the English language / V. D. Arakin. - Moscow: Fizmatlit, 2001 .-- 360 p.

2. Armenian language. Materials from Wikipedia of the free encyclopedia [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_language

3. Baltic languages [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.languages-study.com/baltic.html

4. Vendina TI Introduction to linguistics: textbook. manual for ped. universities / T.I. Vendina. - M .: Higher school, 2003 .-- 288 p.

5. Golovin B.N. Introduction to linguistics / N.B. Golovin. - M .: Higher school, 1973 .-- 320 p.

6. Dyakonov I. M. Semitic-Hamitic languages / I. M. Dyakonov. - M., 1965. -189 s.

7. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics / V.I. Kodukhov. - M .: Education, 1979 .-- 351s.

8. Lewis G. Short comparative grammar of Celtic languages [Electronic resource] / G. Lewis, H. Pedersen. - Access mode: http://bookre.org/reader?file=629546

9. Melnichuk O.S. Introductory to the historical-historical vivchennya of words "yanskikh movs / O.S. Melnichuk. -K., 1966. - 596 p.

10. Reformed AA Introduction to linguistics / ed. V.A. Vinogradov. - M .: Aspect Press, 1998 .-- 536 p.

11. Edelman DI Indo-Iranian languages. Languages of the World: Dard and Nuristan languages / D. I. Edelman. - M. 1999 .-- 230 p.

12. Etymological dictionary of Slavic languages. - M .: Nauka, 1980 .-- T. 7. - 380 p.

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Family language

Typically, the lowest average population density is typical for:
1) coastal mountainous areas;
2) coastal plains;
3) continental terrestrial mountainous regions;
4) Intercontinental plains.
8. The island with the highest population density - the island:
1) Madagascar; 3) Java;
2) Wrangel; 4) Sardinia.
ninth

What is the main reason for the high population density in the northeastern United States:
1) extremely favorable natural conditions;
2) history of settlements;
3) a high level of development of agriculture.
tenths

Natural areas of the Earth are the lowest density. The peculiarity of the population is:
1) arctic deserts;
2) tundra;
3) taiga;
4) the desert of the temperate zone;
5) tropical deserts.
11. The main indicator of the degree of urbanization is:
1) the number of large cities;
2) the proportion of the urban population;
3) the presence of a metropolis.
12. The process of urbanization in developed countries is characterized by:
1) low rates and rates;
2) low level with high levels;
3) a high level with a decrease in rates;
4) high speed and speed.
I3.

Divide the countries of the world as the proportion of urban population declines:
1) Brazil; 3) Kuwait;
2) Ethiopia; 4) Zaire.
fourteenth

First place in the world relative to the absolute number of citizens:
1) Russia; 3) the United States;
2) China; 4) Brazil.
15. The most diverse ethnic composition of the population is typical for the countries:
1) foreign Europe;
2) overseas Asia;
3) Africa;
4) Latin America.
16. Language of India as a national language (together with Hindi):
1) Spanish; 3) English;
2) Arabic; 4) French.

seventeenth

The employment structure of highly developed countries is characterized by the predominance of employees in:
1) industry;
2) unproductive sphere;
3) agriculture;
4) construction.
15

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Cultural and historical features of the peoples of Russia.
Major religions prevalent in the country.

Russia is a multinational country. The peoples are different in their numbers, language, characteristics of settlement, national traditions, customs, traditional occupations, way of life.
Russians (the most numerous people in Russia - 120 million people) live throughout Russia. The most important cultural and historical feature of this people is its centuries-old migration activity and the constant presence in the past of sparsely populated areas near the main places of settlement of Russians.

Russian groups in the process of migrations found themselves in a variety of natural-historical conditions. They adopted the labor skills of the indigenous population and at the same time brought their labor experience (in particular, agricultural) to the regions of the new settlement. For the Russian village, a log-house wooden hut and a Russian stove are characteristic.

Since the main occupation was agriculture, the role of bread, flour, cereal dishes and vegetables plays an important role in the national Russian cuisine. Folk art - ceramics (Gzhel), bone carving (Arkhangelsk region), wood carving, enamel (Rostov), lacquer miniature (Palekh, Fedoskino), tray painting (Zhostovo), lace weaving (Vologda), painted clay toy (Dymkovo ).

The culture of Ukrainians and Belarusians is close to the Russian one, since the peoples are closely linked by a historical path of development.
Some peoples of the Altai language family (Tuvinians, Bashkirs) in the past were engaged in nomadic cattle breeding, which is associated with the peculiarities of nature in their places of residence. Animal skins were used in the manufacture of portable dwellings, clothing, and footwear. The food was dominated by meat and dairy products (Bashkir kumis).
The peoples living in the north of Russia (Khanty, Mansi, Chukchi) are traditionally engaged in reindeer husbandry, hunting and fishing.

Their culture and way of life indicate that these peoples have adapted well to life in the difficult natural conditions of the North.

Fill in the table Language families and groups of peoples of Russia

The peoples of the North Caucasus are famous for their craftsmen in weapons and jewelry (Kuba-chi).
There are several religions in Russia.

Orthodoxy is spread throughout the country. It is professed by Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians (the latter along with Catholicism) and many other peoples, including (along with the remnants of Shamaism) believers of the small peoples of the North (Nenets, Chukchi, Evenki, etc.). Islam, Buddhism (Lamaism) are widespread in the areas of residence of certain peoples of Russia.

Tatars, Bashkirs, many peoples of the Northern Caucasus are Muslims. Buryats, Kalmyks, Tuvans - Buddhism (Lamaism).

Russia is a multinational country, which means it is multilingual. Linguistic scientists number 150 languages - here, such a language as Russian, which is spoken by 97.72% of the population in Russia, and the language of the Negidals, a small people (only 622 people!), Living on the Amur River, are equally taken into account.

Some languages are very similar: people can each speak their own and at the same time understand each other perfectly, for example, Russian - Belarusian, Tatar - Bashkir, Kalmyk - Buryats.

In other languages, although they also have a lot in common - sounds, some words, grammar - it will still not be possible to agree: a Mari with a Mordovian, a Lezgin with an Avar. And finally, there are languages - scientists call them isolated - that are not like any other.

These are the languages of the Kets, Nivkhs and Yukagirs.

Most of the languages of Russia belong to one of the four language families:

Indo-European;
Altai;
Ural;
North Caucasian.

Each family has a common ancestor language - the proto-language. Ancient tribes that spoke such a proto-language migrated, mixed with other peoples, and once a single language broke up into several. This is how many languages emerged on Earth.

Let's say Russian belongs to Indo-European family.

In the same family - English and German, Hindi and Farsi, Ossetian and Spanish (and many, many others). Part of the family group Slavic languages. Here Czech and Polish, Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian, etc. coexist with Russian.

And together with closely related Ukrainian and Belarusian, he is included in the subgroup East Slavic languages... Indo-European languages are spoken in Russia by more than 87% of the population, but only 2% of them are not Slavic. These are Germanic languages: German and Yiddish; Armenian (one makes up a group); Iranian languages: Ossetian, Tat, Kurdish and Tajik; Romanesque: Moldavian; and even the New Indian languages spoken in Russia by the Roma.

Altai family in Russia it is represented by three groups: Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu.

There are only two peoples speaking Mongolian languages - Kalmyks and Buryats, but one listing of the Turkic languages may surprise. These are Chuvash, Tatar, Bashkir, Karachai-Bal-Kars, Nogai, Kumyk, Altai, Khakass, Shor, Tuvinian, Tofalar, Yakut, Dolgan, Azeri, etc. Most of these peoples live in Russia. In our country, there are also such Turkic peoples as Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Turkmens, Uzbeks.

The Tungus-Manchu languages include Evenk, Even, Negidal, Nanai, Oroch, Orok, Udege and Ulch.

Sometimes the question arises: where is a separate language, and where are only dialects of the same language? For example, many linguists in Kazan believe that Bashkir is a dialect of Tatar, and the same number of specialists in Ufa are convinced that these are two completely independent languages.

Such disputes are not only about Tatar and Bashkir.

To the Uralic language family include Finno-Ugric and Samoic groups... The concept of "Finnish" is conditional - in this case it does not mean official language Finland. It's just that the languages included in this group have related grammars, a similar sound, especially if you do not parse the words, but listen only to the melody.

The Finnish languages are spoken by Karelians, Vepsians, Izhorians, Vod, Komi, Marii, Mordovians, Udmurts, Sami. There are two Ugric languages in Russia: Khanty and Mansi (and the third Ugric is spoken by Hungarians). The Samoyedic languages are spoken by the Nenets, Nganasans, Enets, and Selkups. The Yukaghir language is genetically close to the Uralic languages. These peoples are very small in number, and outside of the north of Russia their languages cannot be heard.

North Caucasian family- the concept is rather arbitrary.

Perhaps, linguistic specialists understand the ancient relationship of the languages of the Caucasus. These languages have very complex grammar and phonetics of extraordinary difficulty. There are sounds in them that are completely inaccessible to people who speak other dialects.

Experts divide the North Caucasian languages into n Akh-Lagestan and Abkhaz-Adyghe groups.

On nakh, languages understandable to each other are spoken by the Vainakhs - this is the common name of the Chechens and Ingush. (The group got its name from the self-designation of the Chechens - nakhchi.)

Representatives of about 30 peoples live in Dagestan. “Approximately” - because far from all the languages of these peoples have been studied, and very often people determine their nationality precisely by language.

To the Dagestan languages include Avar, Andean, Yez, Ginukh, Gunzib, Bezhta, Khvarshi, Lak, Darghin, Lezghin, Tabasaran, Agul, Rutul ...

We have named the largest Dagestan languages, but did not list even half. It is not for nothing that this republic was called “the mountain of languages”.

Peoples (language families, groups) and religions of Russia in tables

And a "paradise for linguists": the field of activity for them here is boundless.

The Abkhazian-Adyghe languages are spoken by kindred peoples. On the Adyghe - Kabardians, Adyghes, Circassians, Shapsugs; in the Abkhaz - Abkhaz and Abaza.

But not everything is so simple in this classification. Kabardians, Adyghe, Circassians and Shapsugs consider themselves a single people - Adygs - with one language, Adyghe, and official sources name four Adyghe people.

There are languages in Russia that are not part of any of the four families.

These are primarily the languages of the peoples of Siberia and the Far East. They are all few in number. In the Chukchi-Kamchatka languages Chukchi, Koryak and Itelmen speak; on Eskimo-Aleutian- Eskimos and Aleuts.

The languages of the Kets on the Yenisei and the Nivkhs on Sakhalin and the Amur do not belong to any language family.

There are many languages, and in order for people to agree, a common one is needed. In Russia, it became the Russian, for the Russians are the most numerous people of the country and they live in all its corners.

It is the language of great literature, science and international communication.

Languages, of course, are equal, but even the richest country cannot publish, for example, books on all issues in the language of several hundred people. Or even several tens of thousands. In a language spoken by millions, this is feasible.

Many peoples of Russia have lost or are losing their languages, primarily representatives of small peoples. So, the Chu-lymi, a small Turkic-speaking people in Siberia, have practically forgotten their native language.

The list is, unfortunately, long. In the cities of Russia, the Russian language is becoming common for the multinational population. And most often the only one. However, recently, national cultural and educational societies have taken care of their own languages in large centers. They usually organize Sunday schools for the children.

Most of the languages of Russia before the 20s.

XX century had no written language. Georgians, Armenians, Jews had their own alphabet. The Latin alphabet (Latin alphabet) was written by Germans, Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians, Finns. Some languages do not have a written language even now.

The first attempts to create a writing system for the peoples of Russia were made even before the revolution, but they took it seriously in the 1920s: they reformed the Arabic script, adapting it to the phonetics of the Turkic languages.

She did not fit the languages of the Yarods of the Caucasus. The Latin alphabet was developed, but there were not enough letters for the exact designation of sounds in the languages of small peoples. From 1936 to 1941, the languages \ u200b \ u200bof the peoples of Russia (and the USSR) were translated into the Slavic alphabet (except for those that had their own, moreover, ancient), added superscript signs, high straight sticks to denote guttural sounds and strange combinations of letters for the Russian eye like "B" and "b" after vowels.

It was believed that a single alphabet helped to better master the Russian language. Recently, some languages have begun to reuse the Latin alphabet.

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Population of Russia

Peoples (language families, groups) and religion of Russia in tables

The largest language families in Russia are:

Indo-European family of about 120 million.

Ethnolinguistic composition of the population of Russia

A person who includes a group of Slavic languages (Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), German (Germans and Jews speaking Yiddish), Iranian (Ossetia), Armenian (Armenian) group, Altai families numbering about 11 million people.

people from Turkish (Tatar, Chuvash Bashkirs, Kazakhstanis, Azerbaijanis, Sakhauk, Karachais, Balkars Kumyks, Khakass, etc.) and Mongolian (Buryats and Kalmyks); Northern white family, which number is about 5 million (Avrians, Dargins, Laks, Chechen Ingush, Adygeis Kabardians, etc.). Ural family of 4,000,000 people (Mordovians, Mari, Udmurts, Karelia, Khanty, Mansis, Nentsi, etc.). People and religions of Russia

Family language

Language groups

Dominant religion

Areas of compact residence

Indo-European

Slavic

orthodoxy

throughout the territory

Ukrainians

Belarusian

German

Protestantism

Orenburg, Omsk, Novosibirsk region, Altai Territory

Jews - Yiddish

Judaism

Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Jewish Autonomous Region

orthodoxy

North Ossetia Alania

Armenian Gregorian Church

Krasnodar region

Tatarstan, Bashkiria, Chuvashia, Ryazan and Tyumen, Perm Territory

Bashkiria, region Chelyabinsk

will keep

orthodoxy

Nogays and Kumyks

Dagestan

Balkars and Karachin

Kabardino-Balkaria

shamanism, animism

Altai Republic

Kemerovo region

Buddhism (Lamaism)

orthodoxy

Sakha (Yakutia)

duty

shamanism, animism

Northern Irkutsk region

Mongolian

Buddhism (Lamaism)

Buryatia, Transbaikalia

Kalmykia

Tungus-Manchu

Eve and Evens

shamanism, animism

North of the Irkutsk region, Yakutia, Khabarovsk Territory, Magadan region

Nanai, Oroks, Orochi, Udege, Ulchi, etc.

Khabarovsk and Primorsky Territories

North Caucasus

Abkhazia-Adygea

Kabardino-Balkaria

Karachay-Cherkessia

Nakh-Dagestan

Chechens and Ingush

and Ingushetia

Avars, Dargins, Lux, Lezgins

Dagestan

Finno-Ugric

orthodoxy

Mordovia, Tatarstan, Penza region

Udmurtia

Karelia, Tver region

Komi Republic

Komi-Permyaki

Perm Territory

Khanty and Mansi

Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug

Murmansk region

Nenets, Selkups and Nganasans Material from the site http://worldofschool.ru

shamanism, animism

Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug

Chukotka-Kamchatka

shamanism, animism

Chukotka Autonomous District

Koryaks in Itelmen

Kamchatka Krai

Eskimo-Aleutian

Aleut and Eskim

Commander Islands and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug

Sakhalin region, Khabarovsk region

straw salmon

Krasnoyarsk region

Language family

Language systematics- an auxiliary discipline that helps to organize the objects studied by linguistics - languages, dialects and language groups. The result of this ordering is also called taxonomy of languages.

The taxonomy of languages is based on the genetic classification of languages: the evolutionary-genetic grouping is natural, not artificial, it is quite objective and stable (in contrast to the often rapidly changing areal affiliation). The purpose of linguistic taxonomy is to create a unified harmonious system of languages of the world based on the allocation of a system of linguistic taxa and corresponding names, built according to certain rules (linguistic nomenclature). The terms "taxonomy" and "taxonomy" are often used interchangeably.

Principles of the device

The following principles are characteristic of linguistic taxonomy:

A single hierarchically organized system.
Unified taxa system.
Unified nomination system.

Unity the entire system and the comparability of units of the same level should be ensured by general criteria for assigning objects to one level or another. This applies to both the upper levels (family and group) and the lower (languages and dialects). In a unified taxonomy, the criteria for assigning objects to the same level must meet the following requirements: applicability to any object and consistency(or unambiguity) of assigning an object to a certain class.

Unified taxa system... Linguists can only envy the slender system of taxa in biology. Although there are many terms in linguistics (family, group, branch, sometimes fila, phylum, stock), their use varies greatly from the author, the description language and the specific situation. Within the framework of taxonomy, these taxa are ordered and used according to certain rules.

Unified nomination system... Unlike biology, where there is a coherent system of nomination in Latin using a binary name for the basic unit, in linguistics there is nothing like this and can hardly arise. Therefore, the main thing that a taxonomy can do is, first, to arrange the names of languages in the language of description, choosing the main name for each idiom and group of idioms; secondly, as an additional means for the unambiguous designation of languages, regardless of the language of description, to indicate for each its self-name.

Use of lexicostatistical data... To determine the level of taxa in the existing classification (or to build a classification, where it does not yet exist) and assign an object to a specific taxon, the criterion of preserving the basic vocabulary is used; and not only to build the upper levels of the classification (which is trivial), but also to distinguish between individual idioms. The percentage of hits is calculated from the standard 100-word Swadesh list. The emphasis is deliberately placed on the percentage of coincidences (although the decay time can be given for reference), since there is no unanimity on this issue among comparativists, and the relative percentage of coincidences, and not the absolute decay time, is quite enough to construct a taxonomy of languages.

Upper levels of taxonomy

The main upper levels (taxa) of taxonomy are: family, branch, group. If necessary, the number of taxa can be increased by adding prefixes above- and under-; for example: subfamily, supergroup... Occasionally, the term can also be used zone, often to denote not genetic, but rather areal or paraphyletic groupings, see, for example, the classification of Bantu or Austronesian languages.

A family- the upper baseline on which all taxonomy is based. Family is a group, definitely, but far enough related languages, which have at least 15 percent matches in the base list. See the Eurasian Family List or the African Family Overview for examples.

For each family, the list of branches, groups, etc. is determined taking into account the traditionally distinguished groupings, the degree of their proximity to each other and the time of their disintegration into components. At the same time, branches and groups of different families do not have to be of the same level of depth, only their relative order within one family is important.

The table shows examples of constructing a taxonomy with a strict use of taxa. While some levels can be skipped for Indo-European languages, they are not even enough for Austronesian languages known for their ramifications.

An example of using taxa

taxon
a family	Indo-European	austronesian
subfamily	"European"	Malay-Polynesian
overbranch		Central East Malay-Polynesian
zone		East Malay-Polynesian
subzone		oceanian
branch	balto-slavic	Central East Oceanian
subbranch		Central Pacific (Fiji-Polynesian)
group	slavic	East Fijian-Polynesian group
subgroup	East Slavic	polynesian
sub-group		nuclear-Polynesian
microgroup		samoan
language	Ukrainian	tokelau

Language / dialect

Therefore, in linguistic taxonomy, a scale with four levels of affinity is used: language - adverb - dialect - dialect developed on an empirical basis.

According to this scale, if two idioms have a match percentage in a 100-word base list< 89 (что соответствует времени распада, по формуле Сводеша-Старостина , >1100 years ago), then the idioms are different languages... If the percentage of matches> 97 (decay time< 560 лет), то идиомы являются dialects one language. For the remaining interval (89-97), an intermediate level of very close languages / distant dialects is proposed, for which the term “ adverb»In cases where the corresponding idiom is traditionally viewed as a component of another language. When such an idiom is considered to be a separate language, the taxon “language” is retained for it, and the union, which includes it and corresponding in the degree of closeness to a single language, is called “ cluster».

The use of taxa of the lower levels is clearly illustrated in the table. At the same time, it often happens that one or more idioms in one cluster are considered to be languages, while others are not, although they are at the same level of mutual understanding / structural proximity. An example is the Vainakh cluster, which includes the Chechen and Ingush languages and the Akka-Orstkhoi dialect.

Use of lower-level taxa (for "languages and dialects")

levels	examples

1st level usually matches either a) independent language(poorly understood with other languages), or b) group ( cluster) closely related languages.
2nd level corresponds to a) adverbs (to groups of dilects) or b) to a separate closely related languages(partially mutually intelligible).	picard, Walloon, "Literary French
Level 3 corresponds to individual dialects (with good understanding).		Pskov group of dialects (GG), Tver GG, Moscow
4th level corresponds to individual dialects(with very slight structural differences).		Moscow city,

Note.: Underlined names are expanded in the following lines of the table..

The levels indicated at the same time correlate with the degree of mutual understanding, which is especially useful when the percentage of matches between languages is unknown.

Between two languages Mutual understanding is very difficult and normal communication is impossible without special training.
Inside a language between two adverbs there is mutual understanding, but not complete; communication is possible, but misunderstandings or errors may arise.
Between dialects within the adverb, there is almost complete mutual understanding, although speakers note the features of each dialect, usually in pronunciation (accent) and the use of certain words.

The highlighting of languages and dialects may not be the same as the traditional approach. For example:

The Chinese branch includes up to 18 languages traditionally considered to be dialects of the Chinese language
The French language (or the Oyle language) includes Francian (based on the dialect of which French literary language), Picard, Norman and other dialects.
The Serbo-Croatian cluster includes the Chakavian, Kaikavian and Shtokavian dialects, and the latter also the Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian literary languages (= dialects).
The West Oguz cluster consists of Turkish, Gagauz, and South Crimean Tatar languages.
The Nogai cluster consists of Nogai, Kazakh and Karakalpak languages.
The Ibero-Romance cluster includes Portuguese, Galician, Asturo-Leonese, Spanish, (Upper) Aragonese.

Macro levels

Despite the fact that the upper basic taxon in the taxonomy is the family, it also takes into account information about a deeper relationship. But taxa for the higher levels do not lend themselves to such strict formalization as those of the lower ones.

Superfamily- unification of close families (percentage of matches = 11-14), which are traditionally considered one family, but in accordance with the definition of a family in the language systematics, should be brought to a higher level. Above the family, apparently, are the Altaic languages in a broad sense(including Korean and Ryukyuan Japanese), Kushite and Austronesian.
Macrofamily(= fila) - a union of families, with at least somehow established matches and approximately calculated percentages of matches. Such are, apparently, the Nostratic, Afrasian, Sino-Caucasian, Khoisan macrofamilies.
Hyperfamily- unification of macrofamilies, extremely hypothetical; for example, Borean hyperfamily.
Hypothesis- the alleged unification of families, without establishing correspondences and calculating the percentage of coincidences between individual components. As a rule, it is done offhand. For example, the Nilo-Saharan, wide-Khoisan hypothesis.

In the works of mainly foreign linguists (see, for example,) other terms are also used:

Stoke (stock) is a union of families ( families), which in this case are understood more narrowly than defined above. Examples of effluents are Indo-European (with Germanic, Roman and other families), Ural, Sino-Tibetan, Autronesian; thus, runoff usually corresponds to the above definition family.
Phylum / Fila (phylum, pl. phyla) is the pooling of stocks (also called superstock - superstock) or families (if the term runoff is not used), and, as a rule, more presumed than proven. Generally consistent macrofamily.

Notes (edit)

Literature

Koryakov Yu. B., Maisak T. A. Systematics of the world's languages and databases on the Internet // Proceedings of the International Workshop "Dialogue" 2001 "on computational linguistics and its applications. Volume 2. M., Aksakovo, 2001.

Examples of reference books based on taxonomy or similar:

Koryakov Yu. B. Atlas of Caucasian languages. M., 2006
Registry of languages of the world (in development)
Dalby D. Vol. 1-2. Hebron, 2000
Gordon R. G., Jr. (ed). Ethnologue.com Ethnologue: Languages of the World. 15th Edition. SIL, 2005
Kaufmann T. The native languages of Latin America: general remarks // Atlas of the World’s Languages (edited by C. Moseley and R.E. Asher). 1994
Meso-American Indian languages in Languages of the World // Britannica CD. Version 97. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1997.
Voegelin C.F. & F.M. Classification and Index of the World's languages. NY., 1977
Wurm S. Australasia and the Pacific // Atlas of the World’s Languages (edited by C. Moseley and R.E. Asher). 1994

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

According to the 2009 population census, representatives of more than 130 nations and nationalities lived in Belarus. Among them, the most represented are Belarusians (7,957,252 or 83.7%), Russians (785,084 or 8.3%), Poles (294,549 or 3.1%), Ukrainians (158,723 or 1.7%), Jews (12 926), Armenians, Tatars, Gypsies, Azerbaijanis, Lithuanians. Belarus is also home to from 1 to 3.5 thousand Moldovans, Turkmen, Germans, Georgians, Chinese, Uzbeks, Latvians, Kazakhs, Arabs and Chuvashes (Table 7).

Throughout Belarusian history, it so happened that the main population of the countryside was Belarusians, in cities and towns - Jews, in the north-west of the country there were many Poles, and in the east - Russians, including Old Believers. The numerous noble class - the gentry - was heavily Polonized. At present, in cities and villages, there is a motley ethnic composition, although the majority of the population (over 80%) consider themselves to be representatives of the Belarusian nation.

Table 7- Dynamics of the national composition of Belarus according to the population censuses of 1959-2009.

Nationality	Number, people	Share,%
all Belarus
Belarusians		83,73
Russians		8,26
Poles		3,10
Ukrainians		1,67
Jews		0,14
Armenians		0,09
Tatars		0,08
Gypsies		0,07
Azerbaijanis		0,06
Lithuanians		0,05
Moldovans		0,04
Turkmens		0,03
Germans		0,03
Georgians		0,03
Chinese		0,02
Uzbeks		0,02
Latvians		0,02
Kazakhs		0,01
Arabs		0,01
Chuvash		0,01
Mordva		0,01
Bashkirs		0,01

The linguistic family is the largest unit of classification of peoples (ethnic groups) on the basis of their linguistic kinship - the common origin of their languages from the alleged base language. Language families are subdivided into language groups (Tables 8 - 9).

The largest in number is the Indo-European language family, which includes language groups:

Romanesque: French, Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Moldovans, Romanians, etc .;

Germanic: Germans, British, Scandinavians, etc .;

Slavic: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.

The second largest is the Sino-Tibetan language family with the largest Chinese language group.

The Altai language family includes a large Turkic language group: Turks, Azerbaijanis, Tatars, Kazakhs, Turkmens, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, Yakuts, etc.

The Uralic language family includes the Finno-Ugric group: Finns, Estonians, Hungarians, Komi, etc.

The Semitic-Hamitic language family includes a Semitic group: Arabs, Jews, Ethiopians, etc.

The Belarusian language belongs to the Slavic group of the Indo-European language family.

Table 8- Largest language families

A family	Number of living languages	Number of carriers	Main countries of use
Number	Share of the total number of languages,%	Number, million	Share of population,%
Altai		0.93		2,53	Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Georgia, Iran, China, Russia, Mongolia, Turkey
Afro-Asian		5,11		5,93	Algeria, Afghanistan, Egypt, Israel, Somalia, UAE, Chad
Austronesian		18,03		5,45	Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, New Zealand, Samoa, USA
Dravidian		1,06		3,87	India, Nepal, Pakistan
Indo-European		6,22		44,78	Austria, Armenia, Belgium, Belarus, Great Britain, Venezuela, Germany, India, Peru, Russia, USA, Ukraine, France, South Africa
Niger-Congolese		21,63		6,26	Angola,
Sino-Tibetan		5,77		22,28	Bangladesh, India, China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia
Non-Austronesian languages of New Guinea		8,12		0,06	Australia, Timor Leste, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea
Total		65,94		91,16	-

Table 9- Division into language families and groups

A family	Group	Subgroup	Peoples
Indo-European	Slavic	East Slavic	Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians
West Slavic	Poles, Lusatians, Czechs, Slovaks
South Slavic	Slovenes, Croats, Muslim Slavs (Bosnians), Serbs, Montenegrins, Macedonians, Bulgarians
Baltic		Lithuanians, Latvians
Germanic		Germans, Austrians, German-Swiss, Liechtenstein, Alsatians, Luxembourgers, Flemings, Dutch, Frisians, Afrikaners, Jews of Europe and America, British, Scots, Jutlando-Orlapdians, Anglo-Africans, Anglo-Australians, Anglo-Zealanders, American-American, Bagayamans Grenadians, Barbados, Trinidadians, Belizeans, Guyanese Creoles, Surinamese Creoles, Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders, Faroese, Danes.
Celtic		Irish, Gaels, Welsh, Bretons
Romanesque		Italians, Sardinians, Sanmarinians, Italians-kings, Corsicans, Romansh, French, Monegasques (Monacans), Normans, Swiss Franco, Walloons, French Canadians, Guadeloupeans, Martinics, Guyans, Haitians, Reunions, Seychelles Creoles, Mourels , Cubans, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Mexicans, Guatemalans, Hondurans, Salvadorans, Nicaraguans, Costa Ricans, Panamanians, Venezuelans, Columbus Bians, Ecuadorians, Peruvians, Bolivians, Chileans, Argentines, Uruguayans, Portuguese, Portuguese, Portuguese , Antilles, Romanians, Moldavians, Aromanians, Istrorumans.
Albanian		Albanians
Greek		Greeks, Greek Cypriots, Karakachans
Armenian		Armenians
Iranian		Talysh, Gilan, Mazendaran, Kurds, Baluchis, Lurs, Bakhtiars, Persians, Tats, Hazaras, Charaymaks, Tajiks, Pamir peoples, Pashtuns (Afghans), Ossetians.
Nuristan		Nuristanis
Indo-Aryan		Bengalis, Assamese, Oriya, Bihar, Tharu, Hindustan, Rajasthan, Gujerat, Parsis, Bhili, Marathi, Konkani, Punjabis, Dogra, Sindhi, Western Pahari, Kumaoni, Garkhwali, Gujar, Nepalese, Kashmiris, Shashans , Tirahi, Indo-Mauritians, Surinamese-Indo-Pakistanis, Trinidadians-Indo-Pakistanis, Fijiindians, Gypsies, Sinhalese, Veddas, Maldives.
Ural-Yukaghir family	Finno-Ugric		Finns, Karelians, Vepsians, Izhorians, Estonians, Livs, Sami, Mari, Mordovians, Udmurts, Komi, Komi-Permians, Hungarians, Khanty, Mansi
Samoyed		Nenets, Enets, Nganasans, Selkups
Yukagirskaya		Yukaghirs
Altai	Turkic		Turks, Turkish Cypriots, Gagauz, Azerbaijanis, Karadagians, Shahsevens, Karapapakhs, Afshars, Qadjars, Qashqays, Khorasan Turks, Khalajs, Turkmens, Salars, Tatars, Crimean Tatars, Karaims, Karachais Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Balkars, Balkars , Kyrgyz, Uzbeks Uighurs, Altai, Shors, Khakass, Tuvinians, Tofalars, Uryankhais, Yuigu, Yakuts Dolgans
Mongolian		Khalkha Mongols, Mongols of the PRC, Oirats, Darkha-ty, Kalmyks, Buryats, Daurs, Tu (Mongols), Dongxiang, Bao'an, Mughals
Tungus-Manchu		Evenks, Negidals, Evens, Orochi, Udege, Nanai, Ulchi, Oroks
Kartvelskaya			Georgians
Dravidian	South		Tamils, Irula, Malayali, Erava, Erukala, Kaikadi, Kannara, Badaga, Kurumba, Toda, Kodagu, Tulu, Telugu
Central		Colami, parjy, gadaba, gonda, khond (kuy, cuvi), konda
Northeastern		Oraon (kurukh), malto
Northwestern		Bragui
Korean			Koreans
Japanese			Japanese
Eskimo-Aleutian			Eskimos (including Greenlanders), Aleuts
Sino-Tibetan	Chinese		Chinese, Hui (Dungan), Bai
Tibeto-Burmese		Tibetans, Bhotia, Sherpa, Bhutanese, La Dakhi, Balti, Magar, Qiang, Myanmar (Burmese), Itzu, Tuja, Nasi, Hani, Fox, Lahu, Chin, Cookies, Mizo (Lushei), Manipur (Meithei), Naga , mikir, karens, kaya
Kachinskaya		Kachin (jingpo), sak, etc.
Bodo-garo		Garo, bodo, tripura
Miju		Miju
Digaro		Digaro, midu
Miri		Adi (abor), miri
Dhimal		Dhimal
Lecca		Lecca
East Himalayan		Paradise (kirati), limbu
Newari		Newari
Gurung		Gurung, Tamang (Murumi), Limbu
Afrasian (Semitic-Hamitic)	Semitsk		Arabs of Southwest Asia and North Africa, Maltese, Jews of Israel, Assyrians, Amhara, Argobba, Harari, Gurage, Tigers, Tigers
Berber		Kabila, shauya, reefs, tamazight, schilch (schlech), tuaregs
Chad		Hausa, angas, sura, ankve, bade, boleva, bura, mandara (vandala), kotoko, masa, mubi
Kushite		Beja, agau, afar (danakil), sakho, oromo (gal-la), somali, konso, sidamo, ometo, kaffa, gimira, maji
Niger-Kordofan (Congo-Cardafan)	Mandé		Malinke, bambara, gyula, soninke, susu, mende, kpel-le, dan
Niger-congo	West Atlantic	Fulbe, tuculer, wolof, serer, diola, bolante, dark, muslin, limba
	Central Niger Congo	Gur: mine, gourma, somba, bobo, grusi, tem, cabre, lobi, bariba, kulango, senufo, dogon and others. baule, guang, ha, adangme, ewe, von, etc. Eastern peoples: Yoruba, Gegala, zero, gwari, Igbir, idamo, bini, Igbo, djukun, ibibio, kambari, katab, tiv, ekoy, bamileke, tikar, duala , fang, makaa, teke, bobangi, ngombe, bua, mongo, tetela, konzo, rwanda (nyarwanaada), rundi, ha, nyoro, nyankole, kiga, ganda, soga, haya, ziba, luhya, gishu, gusii, kikuyu, meru, kamba, chaga, mijikenda, fipa, nyamwezi, gogo, shambala, zaramo, swahili, comorians, hehe, bena, kinga, congo, ambundu, chokwe, lwena, luba, lunda, conde, tonga, matengo, bemba, malawi, Yao, Makonde, Makua, Lomwe, Ovim Bundu, Ovambo, Shona, Venda, Tswana, Pedi, Suto, Lozi, Kosa, Zulu, Swazi, Ndebele, Matebele, Ngoni, Tsonga (Shangaan), Santomians, Pygmies, etc. Adamua - ubangi peoples: chamba, mumuye, mbum, gbaya, ngbandi, mundu, sere, gang, zande (azande), mba, pygmies binga
Kordofan		Ebang, Tegali, Talodi, Katla, Kadugli
Nilo-Saharan	East Sudanese		Nubians, Mountain Nubians, Murle, Tama, Daju, Dinka, Kumam, Nuer, Shilluk, Acoli, Lango, Alur, Luo (Joluo), Kalenjin, Bari, Lotuko, Masai, Teso, Turkana, Karamojong
Central Sudanese		Kresh, bongo, sarah, bagirmi, mooru, mangbetu, efe and asua pygmies
Bertha		Bertha
Kunama		Kunama
Sahara		Kanuri, tubu, zagawa
Songhai		Songhai, dyerma, dandy
Fur		Fur
Komuz		Coma, running
Koisan	South African Khoisan		Hottentots, mountain damara, kung bushmen, kham bushmen
Sandave		Sandave
Hadza		Hadza
North Caucasian	Abkhaz-Adyghe		Abkhazians, Abazins, Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians
Nakhsko-Dagestan		Avars (including Ando-Tsezes), Laks, Dargins, Lezgins, Udins, Aguls, Rutuls, Tsakhurs, Tabasarans, Chechens, Ingush
Western Himalayan		Kanauri, lahuli
Austroasian	Mon Khmer		Vieta (quin), muong, tho, khmers, sui, sedang, kui, hre (temre), bakhnar, mnong, stieng, koho (sre), mine, wa, palaung (benlun), putng, bulan, lamet, kkhmu. Asli group. Peoples: Senoi, Semangi
Nicobar		Nicobarians
Khasi		Khasi
Munda		Santalas, munda, ho, bhumij, kurku, khariya
Miao-yao			Miao, she, yao
Kadai	Thai		Siamese (Khontai), Fuan, Li (Liu), Shan, Danu, Khun, Dai, Lao (Lao), Thai, Phutai, Tai, Nung, Santiai, Zhuang
Kam-Suu		Dong (kam), shui (sui)
Ong-be		Ong-be
Lee		Lee
Lacchia		Lacchia
Galao		Gelao (gelo), mulao (mulem), maonan
Austronesian	West Austronesian		Cham (cham), raglai, ede (rade), zyaray, Indonesian Malays, Malaysian Malays, Malays, Minangkabau, Kerinchi, Rejang, Middle Sumatran Malays (Passemakh, Seravey), Lembak, Banjars, Iban, Kedayan, Kubu, Aceh, Gayo, Bataki, Alas, Simalurians, Nias, Abung (Lampungs), Sundy, Javanese, Tengger, Balinese, Sasak, Sumbavians, barito-dayaks (Maanyan, etc.), Ngaju, Otanum, dayaki sushi (Clemantan), Murut, Kadazan (Dusun), Kelabit, Melanau, Kayan, Punan, Kenyah, Badjao (Oranglaut), Bugis (Boogie), Makassar, Mandar, Butung, Toraja, Tomini, Mori, Lalaki, Bunglu, Loinang, Banggai, Gorontalo, Bolaang-Mong minahasa, Sangiris, Malagasy, Talaud, Tagaly, Kapam Pagan, Sambal, Pangasinan, Iloki, Ibanang, Bicol, Bisaya (Visaya), Tausoug, Mara Nao, Magindanao, Yakan, Samal, Inibaloi, Kankanayuga, Bontok, I , kalinga, itavi, palaveño, davavegno, tagakaulu, subanon, bukidnon, manobo, tirurai, tboli, blaan, bogobo, aeta, chamorro, belau, yap
Central Austronesian		Bima, Sumbans, Manggarai, Ende, Lio, Havu, Sikka, Lamaholot, Rotians, Ema (Kemak), Atoni, Tetum, Mambai, Keits
East Austronesian		Melanesian peoples: Southern Halmachers, Biaknumphors, Takia, Adzera, Motu, Sinagoro, Keapara, Kilivila and other Melanesians of Papua New Guinea, Areare and other Melanesians of the Solomon Islands, Eraths and other Melanesians, Melanesians, Kanaki. Micronesian peoples: Truk, Pohipei, Kosrae, Kiribati, Nauru, etc. Polynesian peoples: Tonga, Niue, Tuvalu, Futuna, Uvea, Samoa, Tokelau, Pukapuka, Rarotonga, Tahitians, Tubuai, Paumotu (Tuamotu), Marquis, Mangareva , Hawaiians, Rapanui, etc.
Andaman			Onge
Transnova Guinea			Enga, huli ^ angal, keva, hagen, wahgi, chimbu, kamano, dani, ekachi, yagalik, asmat, kapau, bunak
Sepik-frame			Abelam, Boiken
Torricelli			Olo, arapesh
West Papuan			Ternatians, Tidorians, Galela, Tobelo
East Papuan			Nasion, buin
North American	Continental na-dene		Athabascans, Apaches, Navajs
Haida		Haida
Almosan-keresiu		Algonquins (including Cree, Montagnier, Nasca Pi, Ojibwe, etc.), Wakash, Salish, Keres, Dakota (Sioux), Caddo, Iroquois, Cherokee
Penouti		Tsimshian, Sahaptin, Californian Penuti, Muskogi, Totonaki, Mihe, Huastec, Chol, Choctaw, Tsotsil, Kanhobal, Mam, Maya, Quiche, Kakchi-Kel, etc. Hoka group. Peoples: tequistlatek, tlapanec
Central American	Uto-Aztec		Shoshone, papago-pima, tepeuan, yaki, mayo, tarahumara, nahuatl (Aztecs), pipil
Pano		Teva, Kiowa
Oto manga		Otomi, Masaua, Mazatec, Mixtec, Zapotec
Quechua		Quechua
Aymara		Aymara
South		Mapuche (araucana), puelche, tehuelche, selknam (she), kawaskar (alakaluf), yamana
Equatorial-Tucanoan	Macro toucano		Tucano, Macu, Katukina, Nambiquara
Equatorial		Arawaki, guaivo, hivaro, tupi (including guarani), samuko
Chibcha-paes	Chibcha		Tarasca, lenca, miskito, guaimi, kuna, yanomam and others. Paes group. Peoples: Emera, Varao
Zepano-Caribbean	Caribbean		Caribbean, whitoto
Zhe-pano		Pano, matako, toba, same, kaingang, botokudo, bororo
Australian			Mabunag, dhuval, jangu, gugu-yimidhirr, aranda, alya varra, varl-piri, pintupi, pitjantjatjara, ngaanyatjara, valmajari, nyangumarda, imiji-barndi, murrinh-patha, tivi, enihwindguilguil
Chukotka-Kamchatka			Chukchi, Koryak, Itelmen

In addition to the listed languages of the peoples of the world that are part of certain language families and groups, there are a number of languages that are not assigned to any families. These include Basque, Burishki, Ket, Nivkh, Ainu and some other languages.

Isolated languages

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